Explain the different types of micro electrodes and it's application ?

 Explain the different types of micro electrodes and it's application ?

Microelectrodes are baby electrodes advised for the altitude of electrical signals at a diminutive level. They are frequently acclimated in neuroscience, electrochemistry, and analytic chemistry. There are several types of microelectrodes, anniversary with its own different backdrop and applications.

• Metal Microelectrodes: Metal microelectrodes are about fabricated from tungsten or platinum wire and accept a bore of 10-100 microns. They are acclimated for barometer extracellular electrical signals in the brain, as able-bodied as for microstimulation of specific areas of the brain. Metal microelectrodes can additionally be acclimated for recording electrical signals in added tissues, such as anatomy or the heart.

• Bottle Microelectrodes: Bottle microelectrodes are fabricated from bottle capillary tubes pulled to a accomplished tip and abounding with an electrolyte solution. They are acclimated for barometer intracellular electrical signals in beef and tissues, as able-bodied as for ion-selective abstracts such as pH or calcium concentration. Bottle microelectrodes are additionally acclimated for microinjection of substances into cells.

• Carbon Microelectrodes: Carbon microelectrodes are about fabricated from graphite or carbon cilia and accept a bore of 5-30 microns. They are acclimated for barometer neurotransmitters and added baby molecules in the academician and added tissues. Carbon microelectrodes are additionally acclimated for electrochemical measurements, such as barometer the blaze or abridgement of specific molecules.

• Ion-Selective Microelectrodes: Ion-selective microelectrodes are acclimated for barometer the absorption of specific ions in a band-aid or tissue. They about abide of a bottle or artificial film that is careful for a accurate ion, such as hydrogen, sodium, or potassium. Ion-selective microelectrodes are broadly acclimated in analysis and analytic settings, such as barometer claret pH or ecology the levels of assertive ions in the body.

• Microfabricated Electrodes: Microfabricated electrodes are fabricated application microfabrication techniques, such as photolithography and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). They are acclimated for a array of applications, including biosensing, electrochemistry, and neural interfacing. Microfabricated electrodes are about abate and added absolute than added types of microelectrodes, acceptance for college resolution and sensitivity.

Applications of Microelectrodes:

• Neurophysiology: Microelectrodes are frequently acclimated in neurophysiology for barometer electrical signals in the brain, such as activity potentials and bounded acreage potentials. Metal microelectrodes are acclimated for extracellular recordings, while bottle microelectrodes are acclimated for intracellular recordings. Microelectrodes are additionally acclimated for microstimulation of specific areas of the brain, acceptance advisers to abstraction the furnishings of electrical dispatch on behavior and cognition.

• Electrochemistry: Microelectrodes are broadly acclimated in electrochemistry for barometer electrochemical reactions, such as the blaze or abridgement of specific molecules. Carbon microelectrodes are frequently acclimated for this purpose, as they are awful acute and can be acclimated for barometer baby molecules such as neurotransmitters. Ion-selective microelectrodes are additionally acclimated in electrochemistry for barometer the absorption of specific ions in a band-aid or tissue.

• Analytic Chemistry: Microelectrodes are acclimated in analytic allure for a array of applications, such as biosensing and ecology monitoring. Microfabricated electrodes are decidedly advantageous for biosensing applications, as they can be advised to be awful specific and acute to accurate molecules. Ion-selective microelectrodes are additionally acclimated in analytic allure for barometer the absorption of specific ions in a sample.

Biomedical Engineering: Microelectrodes are acclimated in biomedical engineering for a array of applications, such as neural interfacing and biologic delivery.

Discuss about primary and secondary standars ?

Discuss about primary and secondary standars ?

 Primary and secondary standards are two important types of altitude standards acclimated in assorted fields, including science, engineering, and metrology. These standards are acclimated to calibrate barometer instruments and ensure that their abstracts are authentic and reliable.

Primary standards are the accomplished akin of altitude standards and are acclimated to ascertain the units of altitude for a authentic quantity. These standards are about accustomed by civic or all-embracing organizations and are based on axiological concrete constants. Primary standards are the best authentic and absolute standards accessible and are acclimated to calibrate added altitude standards and instruments.

For example, the All-embracing System of Units (SI) defines the beat as the ambit catholic by ablaze in a exhaustion during a specific aeon of time. This analogue is based on the acceleration of light, which is a axiological concrete connected and is advised a primary standard.

The kilogram is addition archetype of a primary standard. Until recently, the kilogram was authentic as the accumulation of a specific platinum-iridium admixture butt kept at the All-embracing Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. However, in 2019, the kilogram was redefined based on the Planck constant, which is a axiological concrete constant.

Primary standards are not consistently applied to use anon in altitude applications due to their aerial cost, complexity, and bound availability. In these cases, accessory standards are acclimated instead.

Secondary standards are lower-level standards that are calibrated application primary standards and are acclimated to calibrate altitude instruments in the field. Accessory standards are about beneath authentic and absolute than primary standards but are added applied to use in real-world applications.

For example, a class ability use a set of calibrated weights as accessory standards to calibrate a antithesis acclimated to admeasurement the accumulation of samples. These calibrated weights are themselves calibrated application primary standards, such as the kilogram accepted mentioned earlier.

Another archetype of a accessory accepted is a calibrated thermometer acclimated to admeasurement temperature. These thermometers are calibrated adjoin a primary standard, such as a anchored point on a temperature scale, and are acclimated to calibrate added thermometers acclimated in the field.

The use of accessory standards helps ensure that altitude instruments are authentic and reliable, which is capital in assorted fields such as medicine, engineering, and manufacturing. Inaccurate abstracts can advance to adulterated products, capricious equipment, and abeyant abuse to individuals.

It is important to agenda that the accurateness and believability of accessory standards depend on their arrangement and the affection of the altitude instruments acclimated to calibrate them. As a result, it is capital to consistently calibrate accessory standards and altitude instruments to advance their accurateness and reliability.

In summary, primary and accessory standards are important for ensuring the accurateness and believability of altitude instruments in assorted fields. Primary standards are the accomplished akin of altitude standards and are acclimated to ascertain the units of altitude for a authentic quantity. Accessory standards are lower-level standards that are calibrated application primary standards and are acclimated to calibrate altitude instruments in the field. The use of accessory standards helps ensure that altitude instruments are authentic and reliable, which is capital in assorted fields such as medicine, engineering, and manufacturing.

Explain the principle of thermocouple ?

Explain the principle of thermocouple ?

   Thermocouples are temperature sensors that admeasurement temperature based on the assumption of the Seebeck effect, which is the bearing of a voltage aberration amid two antithetical metals back they are abutting at two altered temperatures. The voltage generated is proportional to the temperature aberration amid the two junctions of the metals.

The basal architecture of a thermocouple consists of two antithetical metal affairs that are anchored calm at one end, basic a junction. The added end of the two affairs is affiliated to a barometer instrument, which measures the voltage generated by the thermocouple. The barometer apparatus is calibrated to catechumen the voltage into a temperature reading.

The assumption of operation of a thermocouple can be explained appliance the afterward steps:

• Two antithetical metals are called for the thermocouple wire. The metals are called based on their thermoelectric properties, which actuate the voltage generated by the thermocouple for a accustomed temperature difference.

• The two metal affairs are abutting at one end, basic a junction. This alliance is accepted as the altitude or hot junction.

• The added ends of the two affairs are affiliated to a barometer instrument, which measures the voltage generated by the thermocouple. The barometer apparatus can be a voltmeter, millivoltmeter, or temperature controller.

• Back the temperature at the hot alliance changes, a voltage aberration is generated amid the two metal wires. This voltage is proportional to the temperature aberration amid the hot alliance and the added end of the wire, which is about at a accepted advertence temperature.

• The voltage generated by the thermocouple is abstinent by the barometer apparatus and adapted into a temperature account appliance a arrangement blueprint or equation.

The voltage generated by the thermocouple depends on several factors, including the blazon of metal used, the temperature aberration amid the hot alliance and the advertence junction, and the breadth and bore of the wire. The voltage generated by the thermocouple is about small, alignment from microvolts to millivolts.

Thermocouples are broadly acclimated in assorted industrial, scientific, and medical applications due to their simplicity, aerial accuracy, advanced temperature range, and fast acknowledgment time. The blazon of metal acclimated for the thermocouple wire depends on the temperature ambit of the application. Commonly acclimated metals for thermocouples accommodate Blazon J (iron-constantan), Blazon K (chromel-alumel), and Blazon T (copper-constantan).

In conclusion, thermocouples are temperature sensors that admeasurement temperature based on the Seebeck effect, which is the bearing of a voltage aberration amid two antithetical metals back they are abutting at two altered temperatures. The voltage generated by the thermocouple is proportional to the temperature aberration amid the hot alliance and the advertence junction. Thermocouples are broadly acclimated in assorted applications due to their simplicity, aerial accuracy, advanced temperature range, and fast acknowledgment time.

Principle of optical fiber based temperature sensor ?

 Principle of optical fiber based temperature sensor ?

Optical fiber-based temperature sensors are broadly acclimated in assorted industrial, medical, and accurate applications due to their aerial accuracy, stability, and amnesty to electromagnetic interference. These sensors assignment based on the assumption of fiber-optic interferometry, area temperature changes are abstinent by audition the changes in the optical aisle breadth of the fiber.

The basal assumption of an optical fiber-based temperature sensor is based on the arrest amid two ablaze waves. One beachcomber campaign through a advertence arm of the optical cilia while the added beachcomber campaign through a analysis arm that is apparent to the temperature to be measured. The two after-effects recombine at the end of the cilia and baffle with anniversary other, creating an arrest arrangement that is detected by a photodetector.

The arrest arrangement depends on the aberration in the optical aisle breadth of the two waves. The optical aisle breadth of the advertence arm charcoal constant, while the optical aisle breadth of the analysis arm changes with temperature changes due to the thermal amplification of the fiber.

The arrest arrangement is analyzed to actuate the temperature changes. There are two capital types of optical fiber-based temperature sensors: intensity-based sensors and phase-based sensors.

Intensity-based sensors admeasurement temperature changes based on the changes in the acuteness of the arrest pattern. The acuteness of the arrest arrangement changes due to the changes in the optical aisle breadth of the analysis arm. This change in acuteness is detected by a photodetector and adapted into a temperature reading.

One blazon of intensity-based optical cilia temperature sensor is the cilia Bragg annoying (FBG) sensor. An FBG consists of a baby area of cilia area the refractive basis is periodically modulated. When ablaze is transmitted through the FBG, it is reflected at specific wavelengths, alleged Bragg wavelengths, due to the alternate accentuation of the refractive index. The Bragg amicableness is abased on the temperature, and the changes in the Bragg amicableness can be acclimated to admeasurement the temperature changes.

Phase-based sensors, on the added hand, admeasurement temperature changes based on the changes in the appearance of the arrest pattern. The appearance of the arrest arrangement changes due to the changes in the optical aisle breadth of the analysis arm. This change in appearance is detected by a appearance detector and adapted into a temperature reading.

One blazon of phase-based optical cilia temperature sensor is the Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI). An MZI consists of a cilia optic articulation that splits the ablaze into two arms: a advertence arm and a analysis arm. The two accoutrements recombine at the end of the fiber, and the arrest arrangement is detected by a photodetector. The MZI sensor can be configured to admeasurement temperature changes based on the changes in the appearance of the arrest pattern.

Another blazon of phase-based optical cilia temperature sensor is the Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI). An FPI consists of two absorption surfaces that anatomy a cavity. When ablaze is transmitted through the FPI, it is reflected aback and alternating amid the absorption surfaces, creating an arrest pattern. The changes in the atrium breadth due to temperature changes can be acclimated to admeasurement the temperature changes.

In conclusion, optical fiber-based temperature sensors assignment based on the assumption of fiber-optic interferometry, area temperature changes are abstinent by audition the changes in the optical aisle breadth of the fiber. There are two capital types of optical fiber-based temperature sensors: intensity-based sensors and phase-based sensors. Intensity-based sensors admeasurement temperature changes based on the changes in the acuteness of the arrest pattern, while phase-based sensors admeasurement temperature changes based on the changes in the appearance of the arrest pattern. These sensors are broadly acclimated in assorted applications due to their aerial accuracy, stability, and amnesty to electromagnetic interference.

Explain static and dynamic characteristics of an instrument ?

1.Explain static and dynamic characteristics of an instrument ?

    Instruments are advised to admeasurement concrete quantities such as pressure, temperature, breeze rate, etc. To be effective, an apparatus charge accept assertive characteristics that accredit it to accurately and anxiously admeasurement the abundance of interest. Two important characteristics of an apparatus are changeless and activating characteristics.

    Static characteristics accredit to the behavior of an apparatus back the abstinent abundance is connected or changes slowly. These characteristics are about declared appliance changeless achievement blueprint such as accuracy, precision, linearity, and repeatability.

  Accuracy refers to the amount to which an instrument's altitude is abutting to the authentic amount of the abundance actuality measured. Accurateness is generally bidding as a allotment of the abounding calibration amount of the instrument.

   Precision refers to the amount of reproducibility of an instrument's measurement. Attention is generally bidding as a accepted aberration or about-face of a set of measurements.

   Linearity refers to the adeptness of an apparatus to accommodate a beeline acknowledgment to changes in the abstinent quantity. Ideally, an apparatus should accept a beeline acknowledgment over its absolute operating range.

    Repeatability refers to the adeptness of an apparatus to accommodate constant after-effects back barometer the aforementioned abundance assorted times beneath the aforementioned conditions. Repeatability is generally bidding as a accepted aberration of a set of measurements.

    Dynamic characteristics, on the added hand, accredit to the behavior of an apparatus back the abstinent abundance changes rapidly or is in motion. These characteristics are about declared appliance activating achievement blueprint such as abundance response, damping, and time response.

    Frequency acknowledgment refers to the adeptness of an apparatus to accurately admeasurement the amplitude and appearance of a sinusoidal arresting at altered frequencies. An instrument's abundance acknowledgment is generally declared appliance a abundance acknowledgment curve, which shows the consequence and appearance of the instrument's acknowledgment as a action of frequency.

    Damping refers to the amount to which an instrument's acknowledgment to a abrupt change in the abstinent abundance is damped or attenuated. An apparatus with aerial damping will accept a slower acknowledgment time, while an apparatus with low damping will accept a faster acknowledgment time.

    Time acknowledgment refers to the time it takes for an apparatus to acknowledge to a change in the abstinent quantity. An instrument's time acknowledgment is about declared appliance a footfall acknowledgment curve, which shows how the apparatus responds to a abrupt change in the abstinent quantity.

   In accession to these achievement specifications, instruments additionally accept added important characteristics such as sensitivity, range, and resolution.

  Sensitivity refers to the amount to which an instrument's achievement changes in acknowledgment to a change in the abstinent quantity. An apparatus with aerial acuteness will accept a ample achievement change for a baby change in the abstinent quantity, while an apparatus with low acuteness will accept a baby achievement change for a ample change in the abstinent quantity.

   Range refers to the minimum and best ethics of the abstinent abundance that an apparatus can accurately measure. Instruments with a advanced ambit can admeasurement a broader ambit of values, while instruments with a attenuated ambit can accommodate added authentic abstracts aural a abate ambit of values.

  Resolution refers to the aboriginal apparent change in the abstinent abundance that an apparatus can detect. An apparatus with aerial resolution can ascertain baby changes in the abstinent quantity, while an apparatus with low resolution may not be able to ascertain baby changes.

Overall, the changeless and activating characteristics of an apparatus are important for free its adequacy for a accurate application. An apparatus with aerial accurateness and attention may be acceptable for barometer a changeless or boring alteration quantity, while an apparatus with a fast acknowledgment time and aerial abundance acknowledgment may be added acceptable for barometer a rapidly alteration quantity.

Biomedical sensors , instrumentation & equipment

 Biomedical sensors , instrumentation & equipment.

1. Role of biosensors in medical field?

     Biosensors play a crucial role in the medical field by detecting biological analytes and converting them into measurable signals. They can be used for diagnostic purposes, such as detecting biomarkers of disease, as well as monitoring patient health parameters. Biosensors are also used in drug discovery and development, as well as in personalized medicine.


2.Define transducers and give some examples using in medical application ?

      Transducers are devices that convert one form of energy into another. In the medical field, transducers are used to convert physical or chemical signals from the body into measurable electrical signals. For example, ultrasound transducers convert mechanical energy into electrical signals used to create images of internal body structures. Other examples include electrocardiogram (ECG) and electromyogram (EMG) transducers, which convert electrical signals from the heart and muscles, respectively, into readable signals. Blood glucose monitors also use transducers to convert chemical signals from blood samples into electrical signals that can be measured.



3.Define resolution and threshold ?

        Resolution refers to the ability of a measurement system to distinguish between small changes in the quantity being measured. In other words, it is the smallest detectable difference between two measurements. For example, a ruler with a resolution of 1 millimeter can accurately measure lengths to the nearest millimeter.

       Threshold, on the other hand, refers to the minimum level of a signal or stimulus required to produce a detectable response. In medical applications, thresholds are often used to determine the presence or absence of a particular condition or disease. For example, the threshold for glucose in blood glucose monitors is the minimum level at which the monitor can detect glucose in a blood sample. If the glucose level falls below the threshold, the monitor will not produce a reading.



4.What is the need of multi sensory array?

        Multi-sensory arrays are used in various applications where the detection and recognition of multiple stimuli are necessary. These arrays provide high-resolution data from multiple sensors, enabling better detection and classification of complex signals. In medical applications, multi-sensory arrays can be used for disease diagnosis, drug discovery, and patient monitoring. They can also be used for environmental sensing, robotics, and surveillance, among other applications. The need for multi-sensory arrays arises when a single sensor is unable to provide sufficient information or when multiple sources of information need to be integrated for improved accuracy and reliability.



5.List the biomedical application of comperative sensors ?

Comparative sensors are used in various biomedical applications, including:

• Blood glucose monitoring: Comparative sensors are used to detect and measure glucose levels in blood, providing a convenient and non-invasive way for diabetes patients to manage their condition.

• Oxygen saturation monitoring: Comparative sensors are used to measure oxygen saturation levels in blood, providing a way to monitor respiratory function.

• Heart rate monitoring: Comparative sensors are used to measure heart rate, providing a way to monitor cardiac function.

• Blood pressure monitoring: Comparative sensors are used to measure blood pressure, providing a way to monitor cardiovascular health.

• Respiratory rate monitoring: Comparative sensors are used to measure respiratory rate, providing a way to monitor respiratory function.

• Body temperature monitoring: Comparative sensors are used to measure body temperature, providing a way to monitor fever and other conditions.

what is Biomedical Engineering? it's scopes?

Biomedical Field Definition

Biomedical

   Biomedical refers to the field of medicine and healthcare that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases and injuries using biological, physical, and chemical techniques. Biomedical research is a broad field that encompasses a wide range of topics, including genetics, molecular biology, pharmacology, epidemiology, and more. It is a rapidly growing and evolving field that aims to improve our understanding of human health and disease, and to develop new therapies, treatments, and technologies that can improve the quality of life for people around the world. Biomedical research is often conducted in collaboration with other fields such as engineering, computer science, and psychology, and it plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding of the human body and improving health outcomes for people of all ages.

Biomedical scope

The scope of biomedical research is vast and encompasses a wide range of topics and disciplines, including:

• Molecular biology: This field focuses on understanding the structure and function of molecules in living organisms, including DNA, RNA, and proteins.

• Genetics: This field studies the inheritance of traits and the role of genes in the development and function of living organisms.

• Pharmacology: This field deals with the study of drugs and their effects on the body, including how they are metabolized and how they interact with biological systems.

• Epidemiology: This field examines the distribution and determinants of diseases and injuries in populations, and is concerned with the prevention and control of these conditions.

• Biomedical engineering: This field combines principles from engineering and biology to design and develop medical devices, diagnostic tools, and other technologies that can be used to improve health care.

• Neurobiology: This field studies the structure and function of the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.

• Immunology: This field deals with the immune system and how it functions to protect the body from infection and disease.

• Developmental biology: This field studies the process of development and growth in living organisms, including the growth and differentiation of cells and tissues.

Overall, the scope of biomedical research is broad and encompasses a wide range of disciplines and topics, all of which contribute to our understanding of human health and disease, and to the development of new therapies and treatments.

Bio medical in hospital

   Biomedical technology refers to the use of scientific and technical principles in the field of medicine and healthcare. It includes a wide range of technologies and techniques, such as diagnostic equipment, medical imaging systems, and electronic medical records, as well as more specialized technologies like artificial organs and bionic implants.

    In a hospital setting, biomedical technology is used to diagnose, treat, and monitor patients' health conditions. It can also be used to prevent and control the spread of disease, as well as to improve the overall efficiency and effectiveness of healthcare delivery.

Some examples of biomedical technologies that may be used in a hospital include:

• X-ray machines and other diagnostic imaging systems, such as CT scanners and MRI machines, which are used to create detailed images of the inside of the body to help diagnose conditions and guide treatment.

• Electronic medical records (EMRs), which are digital versions of patients' medical histories and treatment records that can be accessed and shared by healthcare providers.

• Medical devices, such as pacemakers, defibrillators, and insulin pumps, which are used to treat or manage various medical conditions.

• Telemedicine systems, which allow healthcare providers to remotely diagnose and treat patients using video conferencing and other digital tools.

Overall, the use of biomedical technology in hospitals plays a vital role in improving the quality and efficiency of healthcare delivery, and helps to ensure that patients receive the best possible care.